Social Learning Theory Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Social Learning Theory - Assignment Example This task talks about the Social Learning Theory created by Berger, that basically centers upon that a kid creates while watching the consecutive examples that go on around him/her. Hence, it is through demonstrating and rehashing or doing things that are as of now done by others is a significant way a kid learns various practices and receive certain mentalities. In any case, while watching and demonstrating, one component that is in a nonstop working state is the child’s own discernment. The insight works in a manner that if a youngster sees somebody getting affirmation and prizes upon his conduct or deed, the kid would him/herself like to get a similar sort of affirmation and gratefulness from others. This longing drives the youngster to consolidate a similar mentality in his every day practice with the goal that he also can be socially perceived and acknowledged. When the youngster gets accomplishment because of the demonstrated conduct, he figures out how to rehearse somet hing very similar all through his life expectancy. The issue may happen when the youngster can't demonstrate the specific conduct to get affirmation. In such a circumstance, he/she adjusts a similar conduct on different occasions and in numerous manners as long as he would make progress. Similarly, discipline and demoralization go about as negative triggers for the kid not to receive a specific conduct in the event that another person is rebuffed on its premise. Taking everything into account, the scientist expresses this further holds all through the child’s lifetime forming his character a specific way.

Online Therapy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Online Therapy - Essay Example In spite of the advantages implanted in online treatment, the administration conveyance is exceptionally questionable. To begin with, next to no examination has been led to assess the viability of online treatments. Second, individuals who are in extraordinary emergency and need assistance will most likely be unable to compose their interests to the clinicians and hang tight for the answer. Locales offering on the web treatment are similar - have nearly similar pages, website substance and costs. Each site claims having just expert clinicians and assurance secretly. The reason for http://www.4etherapy.com/about_online_therapy.htm is to convey the expert internet advising with authorized clinicians. The webpage content is constrained to home, about online treatment, for experts, about us, and reach us pages. Customers of this site are offered email, private talk and telephone meetings. Remarkably, it is expressed that the permit of every clinician is confirmed with the state's administrative board and specialists are answerable for giving the confirmation of risk protection. People who have occupied timetables, trouble with voyaging, or other protection issues are welcome to utilize this site. Another webpage http://www.asktheinternettherapist.com/e-therapy.asp offers the more extensive scope of administrations: in office guiding, varying media advising, phone treatment, email treatment, constant visit, entrancing tapes, and instructive recordings. Likewise the site is isolated into two sections: one for customers and another for clinical staff. There is a great deal of data about online treatments, personal development books, free conversation gatherings, polls, articles and FAQ. The staff comprises of Physician, Nurse, Nutritionist, Chiropractor and even Veterinarian. This webpage http://www.gracetreecounseling.com/OnlineCounselingTreat.htm gives data about the advantages of web treatment just as certain impediments. Likewise, it is expressed that web based guiding isn't fitting for issues with respect to youngster misuse and self-destructive conduct. People with such issues are given the telephone quantities of the administrations giving help on these issues. Classifica tion and security concerns are likewise tended to, despite the fact that almost no is noted about the abilities of the staff individuals. The site content is restricted to about us, meet the advocate, treatment alternatives, administrations and expenses, protection understanding and accommodating connection. By and by, the enormous number of sties offering on the web treatment to customers is compromising. It is difficult to control the nature of the help and practically difficult to confirm whether the individual composing answers is really proficient. Strom King, the leader of the International Society for Mental Health Online, has noticed that web can't be constrained by government and individuals need to assume greater liability for what they devour on the web (Kliger 2000). In addition, Martha Ainsworth (the holder of the website joining advisors) said she knew about no claims documented against online guides despite the fact that a large number of them need ability to be specialists (Kliger 2000). The expert network has no single significance about the adequacy of online treatment. As it was at that point expressed, a large portion of affiliations have just incorporated online treatment as a major aspect of their administration. Also, numerous colleges present the projects preparing analysts in tele-wellbeing. For instance, the Pacific

Class size

Class size Concerned Parent brought up an issue in Bens blog (about halfway down the page at this point) about increasing class size at MIT, and how this would merely require more students to live in uncomfortable living situations. I was originally going to post this in Bens blog but it sort of turned into an entry of its own. I am dismayed that this year and next apparently represent the largest college applicant pool ever nationwide. As I understand the situation this is somewhat a result of more people going to college, a lack of additional colleges having been built, students taking longer than 4 years to graduate, but mostly I hear the problem is due to the baby boom generations offspring. This last thing I cited is an anomaly. What I dont quite understand is the lack of preparedness by the colleges nationwide to accommodate this aberration. I entitled this post Where there is a will.there is a way for a reason. All the wonderful words spoken in these blogs will not help these brilliant young students. I dont understand why colleges dont offer up more triples. Yes, it will be cramped. However, offering this up in advance gives people the opportunity to just say No if they are not interested. Allot a certain number of rooms as triples. I did read somewhere where someone said triples were awful. The gist of the post was that people need space. I dont know how horrible that kind of situation really is when you consider perspective on things. A horrible situation is what happened in New Orleans. How is living in Africa these days? or living in Baghdad? Allot a certain number of rooms and allow the individuals to decide for themselves. I also would suggest that you require people who wish to accept under these conditions to actually visually see what these conditions look like. From a student perspective, I assure you that its not just about the living situation although thats certainly a factor. Theres already a great deal of crowding in campus housing, since freshmen are required to live on campus (due to the 1997 alcohol-related death of fraternity pledge Scott Krueger). Theres also not a great deal of affordable off-campus housing this is Boston, after all, and there are literally tens of thousands of graduate students (MIT, Harvard, BU, etc) living in apartments around campus. Many apartment buildings dont allow undergraduates to live there. The housing situation is somewhat nonnegotiable, I think, particularly considering that even forcing doubles into triples, triples into quads, and quads into quints wouldnt create all that much more space. The MIT housing system is a bit unique in that, in most dorms, students (or at least upperclassmen) can have singles if they want them a high proportion of our dorm rooms are singles. And a single, as you might imagine, is not really a large enough space to accomodate two people. Even if you squeeze them in very tightly. But the fundamental problem is that MIT is just not a very big school. There are just 4000 undergraduates here, barely twice more than were in my high school. Having 4000 undergrads rather than 10,000 has a very great effect on our student culture its really possible to know the majority of people at the school. Size is an implicit factor in the sorts of departmental opportunities were able to have. The new Bioengineering major, for example, was considering holding a lottery for students to allow entry into the major because they werent sure theyd have enough lab space to accomodate everyone. In my own major, biology, a lottery is held every term for 7.02. Theres just not enough space in the departments lab to teach everyone. MIT has a limited campus area (see the campus map; were bounded on one side by the river and on two sides by well-developed parts of Cambridge) were not like rural schools which can expand in all directions. Were already reaching a point where buildings are starting to take over all the green space. We are blissfully free of intra-MIT application procedures theres no quota, for example, on the number of people who major in EECS at MIT. Once youre in, you can major in anything you want. I think it would be very unfortunate if MIT had to go the way of large state schools and begin having students apply to a particular major once a student at the school. I believe thats called bait-and-switch, and its not fair. But what else could the departments do, if student numbers exceeded the available teaching space? Our lecture halls are already the cause of the few lotteries we do have to face the HASS-D (humanities distribution) lottery being the prime example. Each term, a certain number of students cant take the courses they wanted to because there arent enough seats in the lecture hall for everyone whos interested in taking 9.00 (intro to psychology), 24.900 (intro to linguistics), and some others. Most classes at MIT arent lotteried, but if the number of students were increased, I have no doubt wed face more. This is obviously a situation students would like to avoid. Opportunities like UROP are available to every student at MIT. If the number of students were increased, however, participation in these programs wouldnt be increased proportionally theyre dependent on the number of spots in faculty laboratories. I, like many of my friends, am paid directly out of my faculty supervisors research funds; he wouldnt pay for three of me. I hope that gives a good overview of why, as a student, I wouldnt want MIT to begin admitting a larger class. Its nothing against all the unbelievably qualified applicants we dont have space for, and I certainly dont intend to convey the impression that Im an elitist who wants to keep out riff-raff or something. But MIT is a small school, and I (and all the other students) love that small-school quality.

Should Animal Testing Be Illegal - 2083 Words

Haylie Galvan Mrs. Richardson Argument Essay 5 December 2014 Saving One Fur Ball at a Time Through the years, animal experimentation has played a key role in leading to breathtaking discoveries in medicine, products, and cosmetics. However, what many people tend to forget are the numbers of animal subjects that have suffered serious harm during the process of experimentation. Each day across the United States innocent animals are used as test subjects for products that have little to no relevance importance. Animal testing has had many negative issues that accompany it in society. Debating over the animal rights movement has raised many questions and concerns for years. There is an ongoing controversy regarding if companies should stop testing their products on animals. Although animal research has been the cause of many medical breakthroughs, it is considered morally and ethically right to put animals in these kinds of situations. One of the most asked questions in society is: should animal testing be illegal? When considering how truly relia ble the results of animal test are, and the expense of testing will help bring new light to the problem. By simply passing a policy will not only address this issue but will help better products and medicine in the future. There are many reasons why the opposing viewpoint find animal testing to be an effective method. Many would argue that animal testing has contributed too many cures for illness’s and treatments that are life-saving.Show MoreRelatedAnimal Testing Should Be Illegal1189 Words   |  5 Pagesmillion animals worldwide are used in laboratory experiments each year† (About Animal Testing). Animal testing has been used since the BC years, and it is used to understand and compare how things might affect the human body. In 1937, a pharmaceutical company released a drug that was poisonous to humans unknowingly. It ended up poisoning many people, and resulted in several deaths. After this incident, experiments on animals became more important in the medical world (Hajar, Rachel). Animal testingRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Be Illegal827 Words   |  4 PagesAnimal Testing Should Be Illegal Animal testing, also known as animal experimentation, is the use of animals in experiments to test product safety. I believe it is a big problem in our society. Every year at least 2.7 million animals are killed in laboratories in Australia alone and at least thirty-three animals die each second worldwide, due to cruel animal tests. Many companies feel it is okay to test on animals because they are deemed not as physiologically or emotionally complex as humansRead MoreShould Animal Testing Be Illegal?955 Words   |  4 PagesAnimal testing is widely used today for a variety of different reasons ranging from testing new medical treatments for serious diseases to testing new cosmetics. Due to the widespread nature of animal testing, there are those who argue that animal testing is morally wrong and that it causes unnecessary suffering in animals. However, there are some that believe animal testing’s ability to reduce human suffering makes it morally right, good, and useful. Throughout this paper, I will argue that testingRead MoreHave You Ever Seen A Cruelty Free Symbol In The Shape Of1430 Words   |  6 Pagescontents were made without it being tested on an animal first. But what if the symbol wasn’t on the bottle? Have you ever thought of what would happen to that bunny you would usually see in a pet store? To answer this question, commonly, animals put through experimentation are put through force feeding, food deprivation, and inflictions of wounds. That bunny probably is not okay right now. Cosmetic companies all over the world endanger the lives of animals to test toxicity and irritation of products.Read MoreAnimal Testing Proposal Essay1549 Words   |  7 PagesMillions of animals are being unneedlessly tested on for cosmetics, even though there are plenty of alternatives available and most of the results are unreliable or not applicable to humans. Although the fight against animal testing has made huge progress recently, America has ye t to stop this cruel practice and chooses to torture animals while other countries are making a stop to the testing (â€Å"Animal Testing 101†). Right now, millions of mice, rats, rabbits, primates, cats, dogs, and other animals are lockedRead MorePersuasive Essay On Animal Testing1080 Words   |  5 Pageshappens to the thousands of animals that aren’t in the rescue centers? Do you ever wonder what happens to those animals bought and never to be seen again? Two words, Animal Testing. This awful way of testing hundreds of companies products on these poor, innocent animals. Half to almost all of those animals get killed by these confused researchers looking for a way to make a profit. We need to find an alternative for these cruel researchers. We need to free those animals, they deserve to have a normalRead MoreAnimal Testing Is Bad1374 Words   |  6 PagesAGAINST ANIMAL TESTING! The question is not, Can they reason? nor, Can they talk? but rather, Can they suffer?   Did you know that over a hundred million animals get injured or die due to animal testing? But when you think about is it actually legal? So the thing is it doesn’t matter what we think because there are people who want themselves to live a better life then the animals and they do experimentation on the animals just so humans can live a better life. AndRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Not Be Banned1581 Words   |  7 PagesAnimal testing is being used by different organizations all over the world to prevent specific diseases, especially cancer. Americans see animal testing having a harmful effect but it is one of the main reasons why society has most cures for some illnesses. This topic is important because people need to know what goes on during animal testing and why it is very beneficial. Animal testing needs to be used to find all cures. Some animals such as chimps/ monkeys have 90% of the same DNA humans haveRead MoreAnimal Testing Should Be Outlawed Essay1158 Words   |  5 Pagesof innocent and helpless, animals are being tortured and murdered. They are used for product testing as well as to put into products without consumer knowledge. These defenseless animals are deprived of respect and are victimized to an extent where it becomes unbearable to watch. There are many organizations that are trying to fight for animal rights. However, these organizations struggle with is because there is no legislation in the United States to combat animal testing. Even though it is not againstRead MoreAnimal Rights Should Not Be Banned1290 Words   |  6 PagesAnimal Rights There she sits in her favorite restaurant at her favorite steak house ordering her most favorite meal, steak. It s hunting season and he has been waiting all year to go deer hunting with his father and he just can t wait. The 8 year old girl goes to the doctor sick and discovers she has diabetes. In order to live, she has to inject herself with insulin everyday for the rest of her life. If animal rights is a law then we wouldn t have the luxury of any of these things. Although animals

Teenage Pregnancy At A Young Age - 1273 Words

In order for a child to grow and prosper, a stable environment should be in place. Without a stable environment, it can cause that child to act out and chaos will be a result of that. During teenage years, kids will often experiment with the opposite sex due to curiosity and things they are learning from their peers. Teenage pregnancy has many outside influences besides the individual themselves, one being the media. The teen’s sex education level can explain a lot about the knowledge they have on the topic. Pregnancy at a young age is becoming more prevalent for more reasons than one. Teen pregnancy rates have seemed to be increasing remarkably in the United States, as oppose to westernized countries. Influences linked to affecting teen†¦show more content†¦A trend of early marriage and parenthood was very popular amongst the middle class during the 1900s. In the 1900s, only 1/3 of females had their first child before twenty years old. Researchers have said that this put an immense amount of pressure on teen girls about having to be married if they were pregnant, so this led to many young couples getting married at age twenty or younger. Today, statistics show 80% of teen pregnancies are reported unintended. That’s quite a difference. The epidemic of teens becoming pregnant ends up hurting the young women in more ways than one. Unprotected sex is beginning to occur more frequently. Most teens understand the risks and consequences of engaging in sexual behaviors at such a young age; however, they don’t seem to take any precautions to prevent pregnancy from occurring. Teens often want to experiment when they see their peers, and people they look up to, doing such acts. In these circumstances, the media is to blame. The television airs shows such as â€Å"Teen Mom† and â€Å"16 and Pregnant† which are supposed to prevent teens from making the same mistakes as some of the young girls featured on the shows. â€Å"16 and Pregnant† shows the reality and struggle all these teens encounter while being pregnant, as well as after giving birth. â€Å"Teen Mom†, however, shows these young girls lives caring for their baby 24/7, while finishing school or working full time. You would think

Carrie Chapter Twelve Free Essays

string(74) " light the fireplace without even stirring from her rocker by the window\." Tommy suggested they stop at the Kelly Fruit after and grab a root beer and a burger. All the other kids would be going to Westover or Lewiston, and they would have the place to themselves. Carrie’s face fit up, he said. We will write a custom essay sample on Carrie Chapter Twelve or any similar topic only for you Order Now She told him that would be fine. Just fine. This is the girl they keep caning a monster. I want you to keep that firmly in mind. The girl who could be satisfied with a hamburger and a dime root beer after her only school dance so her momma wouldn’t be worried.. . The first thing that struck Carrie when they walked in was Glamour. Not glamour but Glamour. Beautiful shadows rustled about in chiffon, lace, silk, satin. The air was redolent with the odour of flowers, the nose was constantly amazed by it. Girls in dresses with low backs, with scooped bodices showing actual cleavage, with Empire waists. Long skirts, pumps. Blinding white dinner jackets, cumberbunds, black shoes that had been spitshined. A few people were on the dance floor, not many yet, and in the soft revolving gloom they were wraiths without substance. She did not really want to see them as her classmates. She wanted them to be beautiful strangers. Tommy’s hand was firm on her elbow. ‘The mural’s nice,’ he said. ‘Yes,’ she agreed faintly. It had taken on a soft nether light under the orange spots, the boatman leaning with eternal indolence against his tiller while the sunset blazed around him and the buildings conspired together over urban waters. She knew with suddenness and ease that this moment would be with her always, within hand’s reach of memory. She doubted if they all sensed it – they had seen the world-but even George was silent for a minute as they looked, and the scone, the smell, even the sound of the band playing a faintly recognizable movie theme, was locked forever in her, and she was at peace. Her soul knew a moment’s calm, as if it had been uncrumpled and smoothed under an iron. ‘V ‘George yelled suddenly, and led Frieda out on to the floor. He began to do a sarcastic jitterbug to the old-timey big-band music, and someone catcalled over to him. George blabbered, leered, and went into a brief arms-crossed Cossack routine that nearly landed him on his butt. Carrie smiled. ‘George is funny,’ she said. ‘Sure he is. He’s a good guy. There are lots of good people around. Want to sit down?’ ‘Yes,’ she said gratefully. He went back to the door and returned with Norma Watson, whose hair had been pulled into a huge, teased explosion for the affair. ‘It’s on the other SIDE,’ she said, and her bright gerbel’s eyes picked Carrie up and down, looking for an exposed strap, an eruption of pimples, any news to carry back to the door when her errand was done. ‘That’s a LOVELY dress, Carrie. Where did you EVER get it?’ Carrie told her while Norma led them around the dance floor to their table. She exuded odours of Avon soap, Woolworth’s perfume, and Juicy Fruit gum. There were two folding chairs at the table (looped and beribboned with the inevitable crepe paper), and the table itself was decked with crepe paper in the school colours. On top was a candle in a wine bottle, a dance programme, a tiny gilded pencil, and two party favours – gondolas filled with Planters Mixed Nuts. ‘I can’t get OVER it,’ Norma was saying. ‘You look so DIFFERENT.’ She cast an odd, furtive look at Carrie’s face and it made her feel nervous. ‘You’re positively GLOWING. What’s your SECRET?’ ‘I’m Don MacLean’s secret lover,’ Carrie said. Tommy sniggered and quickly smothered it. Norma’s smile slipped a notch, and Carrie was amazed by her own wit and audacity. That’s what you looked like when the joke was on you. As though a bee had stung your rear end. Carrie found she liked Norma to look that way. It was distinctly unchristian. ‘Well, I have to get back,’ she said. ‘Isn’t it EXCITING, Tommy?’ Her smile was sympathetic: Wouldn’t it be exciting if-‘ ‘Cold sweat is running down my thighs in rivers,’ Tommy said gravely. Norma left with an odd, puzzled smile. It had not gone the way things were supposed to go. Everyone knew how things were supposed to go with Carrie. Tommy sniggered again. ‘Would you like to dance?’ he asked. She didn’t know how, but wasn’t ready to admit to that yet. ‘Let’s just sit for a minute.’ While he held out her chair, she saw the candle and asked Tommy if he would light it. He did. Their eyes met over its flame. He reached out and took her hand. And the band played on. From The Shadow Exploded (pp. 133-134): Perhaps a complete study of Carrie’s mother will be undertaken someday, when the subject of Carrie herself becomes more academic. I myself might attempt it, if only to gain access to the Brigham, family tree. It might be extremely interesting to know what odd occurrences one might come across two or three generations back†¦ And there is, of course, the knowledge that Carrie went home on Prom Night. Why? It is hard to tell just how sane Carrie’s motives were by that time. She may have gone for absolution and forgiveness, or she may have gone for the express purpose of committing matricide. In any event, the physical evidence seems to indicate that Margaret White was waiting for her†¦ The house was completely silent. She was gone. At night. Gone. Margaret White walked slowly from her bedroom into the living room. First had come the flow of blood and the filthy fantasies the Devil sent with it. Then this hellish Power the Devil had given to her. It came at the time of the blood and the time of hair on the body, of course. Oh, she knew about the Power. Her own grandmother had it. She had been able to light the fireplace without even stirring from her rocker by the window. You read "Carrie Chapter Twelve" in category "Essay examples" It made her eyes glow with (thou shalt not suffer a witch to live) a kind of witch’s light. And sometimes, at the supper table the sugar bowl would whirl madly like a dervish. Whenever it happened, Gram would cackle crazily and drool and make the sign of the Evil Eye all around her. Sometimes she panted like a dog on a hot day, and when she died of a heart attack at sixty-six, senile to the point of idiocy even at that early age, Carrie had not even been a year old. Margaret had gone into her bedroom not four weeks after Gram’s funeral and there her girl-child had lain in her crib, laughing and gurgling, watching a bottle that was dangling in thin air over her head. Margaret had almost killed her then. Ralph had stopped her. She should not have let him stop her. Now Margaret White stood in the middle of the living room. Christ on Calvary looked down at her with his wounded, suffering, reproachful eyes. The Black Forest cuckoo clock ticked. It was ten minutes after eight. She had been able to feel, actually feel the Devil’s Power working in Carrie. It crawled all over you, lifting and pulling like evil, tickling little fingers. She had set out to do her duty again when Carrie was three, when she had caught her looking in sin at the Devil’s slut in the next yard over. Then the stones had come, and she had weakened. And the power had risen again, after thirteen years. God was not mocked. First the blood, then the power, (you sign your name you sign it in blood) now a boy and dancing and he would take her to a roadhouse after, take her into the parking lot, take her into the back seat, take her Blood, fresh blood. Blood was always at the root of it, and only blood could expiate it. She was a big woman with massive upper arms that had swarfed her elbows to dimples, but her head was surprisingly small on the end of her strong, corded neck. It had once been a beautiful face. It was still beautiful in a weird, zealous way. But the eyes had taken on a strange, wandering cast, and the lines had deepened cruelly around the denying but oddly weak mouth. Her hair, which had been almost all black a year ago, was now almost white. The only way to kill sin, true black sin, was to drown it in the blood of (she must be sacrificed) a repentant heart. Surely God understood that, and had laid His finger upon her. Had not God Himself commanded Abraham to take his son Isaac up upon the mountain? She shuffled out into the kitchen in her old and splayed slippers, and opened the kitchen utensil drawer. The knife they used for carving was long and sharp and arched in the middle from constant honing. She sat down on the high stool by the counter, found the sliver of whetstone in its small aluminium dish, and began to scrub it along the gleaming edge of the blade with the apathetic, fixated attention of the damned. The Black Forest cuckoo clock ticked and ticked and finally the bird jumped out to call once and announce eight-thirty. In her mouth she tasted olives. THE SENIOR CLASS PRESENTS SPRING BALL 79 May 27,1979 Music by The Billy Bosman, Band Music by Josie and the Moonglows ENTERTAINMENT ‘Cabaret’ – Baton Twirling by Sandra Stenchfield ‘500 Miles’ ‘Lemon Tree’ ‘Mr Tambourine Man’ Folk Music by John Swithen and Maureen Cowan ‘The Street Where You Live’ ‘Raindrops Keep Fallin’ on My Head’ Ewen High School Chorus ‘Bridge Over Troubled Waters’ CHAPERONES Mr Stephens, Miss Geer, Mr and Mrs Lublin, Miss Desjardin Coronation at 10:00 P.M. Remember, its YOUR prom; make it one to remember always! When he asked her the third time, Carrie had to admit that she didn’t know how to dance. She didn’t add that, now that the rock band had taken over for a half-hour set, she would feel out of place gyrating on the floor. (and sinful) yes, and sinful. Tommy nodded, then smiled. He leaned forward and told her that he hated to dance. Would she like to go around and visit some of the other tables? Trepidation rose thickly in her throat, but she nodded. Yes, that would be nice. He was seeing to her. She must see to him (even if he really did not expect it); that was part of the deal. And she felt dusted over with the enchantment of the evening. She was suddenly hopeful that no one would stick out a foot or slyly paste a kick-me-hard sign on her back or suddenly squirt water in her face from a novelty carnation and retreat cackling while everyone laughed and pointed and catcalled. And if there was enchantment, it was not divine but pagan. ‘Carrie?’ a voice said hesitantly. She had been so wrapped up in watching the band and the dance floor and the other tables that she hadn’t seen anyone coming at all. Tommy had gone to get them punch. She turned around and saw Miss Desjardin. For a moment the two of them merely looked at each other, and the memory travelled between them, com (she saw me she saw me naked and screaming and bloody) without words or thought. It was in the eyes. Then Carrie said shyly: ‘You look very pretty, Miss Desjardin.’ She did. She was dressed in a glimmering silver sheath, a perfect complement to her blonde hair, which was up. A simple pendant hung around her neck. She looked very young, young enough to be attending rather than chaperoning. `Thank you.’ She hesitated, then put a gloved hand on Carrie’s arm. ‘You are beautiful,’ she said, and each word carried a peculiar emphasis. Carrie felt herself blushing again and dropped her eyes to the table. ‘It’s awfully nice of you to say so. I know I’m not †¦ not really †¦ but thank you anyway.’ ‘It’s true,’ Desjardin said. ‘Carrie, anything that happened before †¦ well, it’s all forgotten. I wanted you to know that.’ ‘I can’t forget it,’ Carrie said- She looked up. The words that rose to her lips were: I don’t blame anyone any more. She bit them off. It was a lie. She blamed them all and always would, and she wanted more than anything else to be honest. ‘But it’s over with. Now it’s over with.’ Miss Desjardin smiled, and her eyes seemed to catch and hold the soft mix of lights in an almost liquid sparkling. She looked across toward the dance floor, and Carrie followed her gaze. ‘I remember my own prom,’ Desjardin said softly. ‘I was two inches taller than the boy I went with when I was in my heels. He gave me a corsage that clashed with my gown. The tailpipe was broken on his car and the engine made †¦ oh, an awful racket But it was magic, I don’t know why. But I’ve never had a date like it, ever again.’ She looked at Carrie. ‘Is it like that for you?’ ‘It’s very nice,’ Carrie said. ‘And is that all?’ ‘No. There’s more. I couldn’t tell it all. Not to anybody.’ Desjardin smiled and squeezed her arm. ‘You’ll never forget it,’ she said. ‘Never.’ ‘I think you’re right.’ ‘Have a lovely time, Carrie.’ ‘Thank you.’ Tommy came up with two Dude cups of punch as Desjardin left, walking around the dance floor toward the chaperones’ table. ‘What did she want?’ he asked, putting the Dude caps down carefully. Carrie, looking after her, said: ‘I think she wanted to say she was sorry.’ (momma untie your apron strings i’m getting big) and she wanted it that way. ‘Look,’ he said as they got up. Two or three stagehands were sliding the King and Queen thrones from the wings while Mr Lavoie, the head custodian, directed them with hand motions toward preset marks on the apron. She thought they looked quite Arthurian, those thrones, dressed all in blinding white, strewn with real flowers as well as huge crepe banners. ‘They’re beautiful,’ she said. ‘You’re beautiful,’ Tommy said, and she became quite sure that nothing bad could happen this night – perhaps they themselves might even be voted King and Queen of the Prom. She smiled at her own folly. It was nine o’clock. Sue Snell sat quietly in the living room of her house, hemming a dress and listening to the Jefferson Airplane Long John Silver album. It was old and badly scratched, but soothing. Her mother and father had gone out for the evening. They knew what was going on, she was sure of that, but they had spared her the bumbling talks about how proud they were of Their Girl, or how glad they were that she was finally Growing Up. She was glad they had decided to leave her alone, because she was still uncomfortable about her own motives and afraid to examine them too deeply, lest she discover a jewel of selfishness glowing and winking at her from the black velvet of her subconscious. How to cite Carrie Chapter Twelve, Essay examples

Workplace Mental Health at BHP Billiton †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Workplace Mental Health at BHP Billiton. Answer: Introduction Ok Tedi is the open pit copper and gold mine situated in Papua New Guinea. The mining site located near the Ok Tedi River in the Star Mountains Rural LLG in the North Fly District of the Western Province. BHP Billton on the other hand is a Melbourne based international mining company. BHP Billton extracts and processes the minerals, oil and gas primarily from Australia and America (bhp.com. 2017). This report will focus on the ethical issue of BHP occurred in Ok Tedi mine. A detailed study of the companys CSR policy will be conducted to understand the responsibility and operational strategies. BHP was sued by the Papua New Guinea landowner in the Victorian Supreme Court of in Melbourne in 1994. The allegations were drawn on BHP stating that the company is causing environmental degradation by dumping the mine tailings waste into the rivers of Ok Tedi and Fly. The company came to an out-of-court settlement of AUUS$40 million in financial compensation along with the dredging of tailing from the rivers to stop further damage in 1996. The company was again alleged in 2000 for breaching the terms of 1996 settlement. It led the company to withdraw its operations form Ok Tedi mine to the Papua New Guinea Sustainable Development Program Limited transferring about 52% of its equity stake management (Business-humanrights.org. 2017). The company had to pay a AUS$ 40 million to the state in financial mode for violating the environmental responsibilities and causing a serious degradation of the nature. Moreover, their actions resulted in a degradation of the fish communities nearby. In addition to the monitory payment, the company also had to take part in the process of dredging the tailing out of the rivers. It will limit the further damage. BHP CSR Activities Companys CSP policy communicates the ethical pursuit of the company to it major stakeholders. According to their policy, the considers zero tolerance for the misconducts of discrimination, compliance with law, corruption, bribery and extortion, biofuels, world heritage sites and protected areas, freedom of association, workplace health and safety, living wages, treatment of employees, forced or compulsory labour, child labour and the environment (OCallaghan and Graetz 2017). According to BHP, they operate accordingly to the manner, which is protective of the environment and comply with all applicable environment laws, regulation and standard. However the case occurred in Ok Tedi on 1994 reflects actions differently causing the environmental degradation. It resulted in deforestation of more than 3000 square kilometers turning the tropical rain forests into savannahs. It also caused a significant degradation of the fish population (OCallaghan and Graetz 2017). The company communicates their CSR information to the stakeholders for better manage their operations. Moreover, they have a process of receiving feedback from their major stakeholders that will in turn help them in managing the business in a more ethical manner (OCallaghan and Graetz 2017). BHP claims that their CSR policy considers the health and safety of their employees and set the workplace accordingly. The CSR policy of the company states that it ensures the safety and health of the working forces. Further it takes appropriate precautionary measures to protect employees from work related hazards and anticipated dangers. Moreover, the company assures the supply of health and safety training to their employees on a regular basis. However, the practicality differs from their stated CSR policy. However, the report produced at Beyond Blue, the workers of BHP are expected to suffer mental health condition in their life time due to working in BHP worldwide. The mental health was identified as an issue in BHP workplace that needs immediate attention. However, the maximum number of workers in BHP is male who denies to receive any kind of assistance of mental health. However, the company readdressed its CSR policy by including the mental wellness standards, which was launche d in 2014 (mqmentalhealth.org. 2017). The company seeks the highest level of governance for their organization and strives to foster a culture to value and reward the exemplary ethical standards, personal and corporate integrity and respect for others (BHP Billiton. 2017). They have different governance practices and bound by them. They are: Constitution of BHP Billton Limited Memorandum Corporate Governance Statement They also formed board committees that operate under specific terms that includes: Board Governance Terms of Appointment of Non-Executive Director Non-Executive Director Induction Program Remuneration Committee Risk and Audit Committee Nomination and Governance Committee Sustainability Committee Finance Committee Furthermore, the company has some of the core policies by which, all the operations are coordinated. They are: Code of Business Conduct Securities Dealing Provision of Audit and Other Services by the External Auditor Market Disclosure and Communications Independence of Directors Policy Our Approach to Diversity Results and Effects Though the CSR policies stated by the company reflects the responsibilities of undertaken by the company is neat, they considerably varies in actuality. The OK Tedi is a key example that highlights the loopholes in the CSR policy of BHP Billton. Though they state some of the eye catching CSR policies and claims to be bound by the rules, their actions considerably deviates. They actions have cost a number of stakeholders and also threaten the environmental disasters in their workplace. BHP Billton Foundation is an extension of the BHP Billton mining company that volunteers to the social causes. This is a charity firm that aims to make a distinctive contribution to the unprecedented sustainable development challenges faced by the current generation (bhp.com. 2017). Conclusion The report can conclude that the CSR policy management stated by the company is well articulated and well structured. The company can truly achieve the sustainability by following the CSR policies set by them. However, there is a significant gap between the policy stated and the operations undertaken by the company. They failed to address the policies which resulted into the case of OK tedi and degraded the environmental condition harming the major stakeholders in the area. References BHP Billiton. 2017.BHP Billiton | Governance. [online] Available at: https://www.bhp.com/our-approach/our-company/governance [Accessed 28 Oct. 2017]. bhp.com. 2017.BHP Billiton | About us. [online] Available at: https://www.bhp.com/our-approach/our-company/about-us [Accessed 28 Oct. 2017]. bhp.com. 2017.BHP Billiton | BHP Billiton Foundation. [online] Available at: https://www.bhp.com/community/bhp-billiton-foundation [Accessed 28 Oct. 2017]. Business-humanrights.org. 2017.BHP lawsuit (re Papua New Guinea) | Business Human Rights Resource Centre. [online] Available at: https://business-humanrights.org/en/bhp-lawsuit-re-papua-new-guinea [Accessed 28 Oct. 2017]. mqmentalhealth.org. 2017.Workplace mental health at BHP Billiton. [online] Available at: https://www.mqmentalhealth.org/articles/bhp-billiton-work-place-mental-health-case-study [Accessed 28 Oct. 2017]. OCallaghan, T. and Graetz, G., 2017. Introduction. InMining in the Asia-Pacific(pp. 1-15). Springer, Cham.

6 Unusual Online Certificate Programs

6 Unusual Online Certificate Programs So, you’re not interested in an online MBA. You’d prefer to lead a rally, write a memoir, or brew the perfect craft beer? Never fear. Several colleges offer online certificate programs that appeal less to sharp-suited business people and more to the garden-growing, media-sharing, beer-brewing types. Interested? Take a look at these unique distance education programs: The Business of Craft Brewing Online Certificate (Portland State University) Through this four-course series, â€Å"industry specialists† teach students everything they need to know to start up and run a successful craft brewery. Courses include â€Å"Basic Business for Craft Beverages,† â€Å"Craft Beverage Business Management,† â€Å"Strategic Craft Beverage Marketing,† and â€Å"Finance and Accounting for the Craft Brewery.† Students are also invited to fly out to Portland to take part in the optional â€Å"Craft Beverage Immersion Excursion,† spending three days meeting with brewery owners, tasting Portland beers, and touring the Oregon beer empire. Cheers. Certificate in Organic Agriculture (University of Washington) If you have a green thumb and a fondness for organic food, the University of Washington Certificate in Organic Agriculture might be for you. The college touts this 18-credit program as a good fit for â€Å"those wanting to pursue a career in organic agriculture, anyone interested in beginning a community supported agriculture (CSA) enterprise, [and] home gardeners.† As a student, you’ll take online courses such as â€Å"Organic Gardening and Farming,† â€Å"Agriculture, Environment, and Community,† and â€Å"Food Safety and Quality.†Ã‚   You’ll also be required to complete an internship, which can be done by volunteering through a local organic farm, organic certifying agency, or organic business. Sustainability Certificate (Harvard Extension School) If you want to promote a sustainability in your community or business, Harvard’s Sustainability Certificate provides instruction from world-class thinkers. Students in this program take five courses. â€Å"Knowledge Set† courses such as â€Å"Energy and the Environment,† â€Å"Strategies for Sustainability Management,† and â€Å"Sustainable Business and Technology,† provide students with a common foundation of understanding. â€Å"Skill Set† courses such as â€Å"Catalyzing Change: Sustainability Leadership for the Twenty-First Century† and â€Å"Introduction to Sustainable Buildings,† help students take action. It’s also important to note that, although this certificate is coming from an ivy-league school, it is an open-access program. Anyone can simply start taking courses towards certificate completion without the need to apply. New Urbanism Online Certificate (Miami School of Architecture) Those with a passion for cities community building may be interested in the New Urbanism Online Certificate. Students earning the certificate are prepared to take the Congress for New Urbanism accreditation exam. (Although you should also be aware that the exam can be taken without the certificate). The New Urbanism certificate is self-paced and takes students through the basics of creating walkable, sustainable places. Course units include: â€Å"A Crisis of Place and the Alternative of the New Urbanism,† â€Å"Ecology Built Legacy,† â€Å"Architecture, Local Culture, and Community Identity,† â€Å"Green Building and Historic Preservation,† and â€Å"Implementing New Urbanism.† Creative Nonfiction Writing Online Certificate (UCLA Extension Program) If you’re serious about writing that best-selling memoir, personal essay, or political history, take a look at this UCLA creative non-fiction program. You’ll focus most of your 36 credits on intensive creative non-fiction instruction. You’ll also have the opportunity to choose from electives in poetry, playwriting, and fiction. Best of all, students that complete the coursework are given a consultation with a UCLA Writer’s Program instructor, detailed notes, and an in-person or phone critique session. Certificate in Community Organizing (Empire State College) What would you like to see change in your community? If you have a quick answer to that question but don’t know how to make it happen, consider earning a Certificate in Community Organizing. Empire State’s program arms students with knowledge about justice, power dynamics, and navigating government environments. It aims to help learners develop a skill set that can be applied to create lasting change in their communities. This 12-credit program includes courses such as â€Å"Advocacy in State and Community-Level Government,† â€Å"Race, Gender, and Class in U.S. Public Policy,† and â€Å"Human Service Policy.† To complete the certificate, students are required to apply their learning by working with real communities while taking the capstone â€Å"Community Organizing† course. Free Learning Alternatives If youd rather not jump into a major time commitment and write a big check just yet, take a look at these less formal free online classes. Youll find options for a wide array of subjects including photography, guitar, and writing.

Ahead of the pack, USP Magazine - Emphasis

Ahead of the pack, USP Magazine Ahead of the pack, USP Magazine Rob Ashton explains how to use writing skills to become a recognised industry expert. If you take a poll to find the worlds top music executive, the chances are that most people will say Simon Cowell. There may be other executives with more talent and panache. You can even argue that his fellow judges are more musically adept. But Cowell has positioned himself as the expert. The public are divided revering and reviling him in equal measure. But what he says goes. No-one can deny his status and authority in the music industry. As a sales professional, you could do well to take a leaf out of Cowells book. The market for office supply equipment is crowded, with many brands jostling for space. Your prospects need a shortcut to enable them to decide who to buy from and what to buy. There often isnt time for them to kick-back with a cup of tea and analyse the messages youre communicating through your sales and marketing material. But you can stand out by positioning yourself as an expert. Prospective customers will start to see you as a trusted advisor before theyve even engaged your services. And they will be more likely to buy from you as a result. Expert status can lead to other opportunities, such as giving speeches or hosting workshops, which again make selling easier. Its a virtuous circle. Yet, we Brits can be a self-deprecating bunch. We often prefer to operate our businesses and careers with as little fanfare as possible. The thought of public speaking can send shivers down our spines. But through writing, even the most unassuming character can shine. And writing reports, articles, white papers and blogs can help you to become the preferred provider in the industry. Whats more, good writing doesnt just have to be an innate skill: its something you can learn. These seven steps will help you write your way to expert status. One Consistently show how your company differentiates itself in the marketplace. Dont be afraid to recommend doing things differently. Two Be curious about your clients. What really makes them tick? Get to know your clients inside out by asking lots of questions, rather than making assumptions about what they need and want. Three Then write from their perspective, not yours. Think beyond the products or services you offer and focus on how your business has an impact on the lives of your clients. Whether youre writing a brochure, pamphlet or article, you need to focus on your clients needs. Begin by asking yourself: What is the document about? Who will read it? How much do they already know about the subject? What do they absolutely need to know? How important is the subject to them? How interested are they in the subject? (Note that readers arent always interested in whats important to them. So you often need to make them interested.) To become a trusted advisor, your writing needs to be clear and punchy. You can achieve this with careful planning. Brainstorm everything you want to include in your document using the headings Who?, What?, Where?, When?, and Why? Then only include what you think is essential for your readers to know. Your document will be much clearer as a result. Four Comment on relevant industry stories by writing letters to magazines. Use the SCRAP formula: Situation Begin by explaining the situation (or where the industry is). Complication Introduce the idea that theres a problem (why the industry cant stay as it is). Resolution State your answer to the problem. The reader will think of you as an expert because you can offer a practical, considered, solution. Action Suggest what action the reader can or should take. Offer a viewpoint that is new and intriguing. Politeness Finally, end with a polite but thought-provoking sign-off. Five Suggest article ideas to trade newspapers and magazines. The best articles to position yourself as an expert are how-to features. You could reveal the secrets behind photocopier maintenance, or how to eke the most out of ink cartridges, for instance. Send a synopsis of the article to the magazine first. Write a snappy headline and standfirst (the two lines under the headline). Then write an attention-grabbing opening paragraph and a few bullet points about what your article will include. The magazine editor can then give you further guidelines to ensure your article is a hit with the readers. Six Blogs have a worldwide audience of millions. So its well worth setting up a blog and using it to connect with your clients. Pay careful attention to every post you make. Only write things you dont mind being broadcast on the 10 Oclock News. Dont ever gripe about clients or competitors: Seven In your writing, include examples of how you and your company make a real difference to people. Make your writing personal. Its more powerful to write that one in five people found that their ink lasted longer than to use the term 20 per cent. Speak directly to the reader by using words such as you, we, us and our. And use the active voice as much as possible. For instance, weve helped over 1000 customers with their printing needs is far more effective than Over 1000 customers have been helped with their printing needs. Positioning yourself as an expert is a skill that will serve you throughout your whole career. Even if you decide you want to sell condos in the Caribbean in the future, the skills youll learn are transferable. You may not achieve the wealth and fame of someone like Simon Cowell. But you can forge your way as a leader in your industry. And with a little thought, care and attention, your expert status will pay dividends. Rob Ashton is Chief Executive of Emphasis, the specialist business-writing trainers.

Comparing between (Mercedes vs Lexus) companies in the 4 ps(place, Essay

Comparing between (Mercedes vs Lexus) companies in the 4 ps(place, price, promotion and product ) - Essay Example In Japan 1926, Sakichi Toyoda founded Toyota Company. In 1989, Fiji Toyoda introduced Lexus as a part of their company owner Toyota. LS 400 were the first car model created by Lexus in Japan (Adler, 2006). This brand has international services around the world while Mercedes – Benz is a Germany company for cars. It was established in 1926. Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler are the founders for this company. They have many tips of luxury vehicles and trucks (Hodge & Schachter, 2006). Marketing promotion of Mercedes Benz is outdoor with a blue sky. According to the design of the color, it is made such that the cars may sell to men for use. The place for advertisement has dark green trees and dark green lawns. This indicates that the product is high price as dark symbolizes money. The product is linked to red which means that it is of energy, passion and strength. Mercedes Benz is a car designed for the rich as it is brought out. The richness is through the use of a beautiful rich lady in its advertisement also indicating that it is a modern car and not traditional. The company offers range of products such as ES, GS, and LS luxury. There have been increases in the ranges that are offered by the company. The company has extended to offer sport models. Many models of the car can still be offered as hybrid. Promotion of the car is through consideration of demographics, geography, behavior and psychograph. Promotion is done on TVs as they are the powerful media to show the product (Mahler & Potter, 2004). Through the consideration of geography, Mercedes Benz sells all over the world. This makes the product be sold all over the word. Demographics promotion of the product brings it to be sold to different age, sex and income. Pricing of the product is high. The price of E350 is about 800,000 RMB. The pricing of the product focuses on the young successful customers. The style of the cars is high due to the high price

Emerging Technology in Solar Energy Research Paper

Emerging Technology in Solar Energy - Research Paper Example Solar energy has been used towards providing heat and light in different parts of the world by using many techniques. These technologies are ever-emerging and are used in variety of methods from producing electricity, thermal energy, architecture, artificial photosynthesis, solar photovoltaic and heating. All these technologies are further divided into the passive or active solar technologies depending on their utilization of sunlight from capturing it to distributing it in certain ways. Active solar procedures incorporate the utilization of photovoltaic boards and thermalcollecting methods to contain the solar energy. Passive solar procedures include turning a structure to the Sun, selecting materials with good warm mass or light scattering properties, and outlining spaces that characteristically circle air. Emerging Technologies in Active Solar Energy By the very essence of the word, Solar, the utilization of Sunlight towards producing electricity through concentrated solar power (CSP) or photovoltaic (PV) is amongst the rapidly growing technology of the time. Both of the technologies use a separate method towards the accumulation of electricity. In Concentrated Solar Power system, the sun beams are collected towards a small or a large area and then focused towards one area where the sunlight is converted into electric current through photovoltaic effect.

Themes of Tradition in Literature

Themes of Tradition in Literature Evolving Traditions Traditions are important because they transmit stories, shared values, and aspirations from generation to generation. Traditions offer guidance and assists in a group of people sharing a collective identity. Overtime the origin/meaning of a tradition may become obscured or lost in time, and when that happens the tradition can either fade from existence or be blindly followed even though the original meaning may have been lost. The stories The Lottery by Shirley Jackson, A Rose for Emily by William Faulkner, and A Worn Path by Eudora Welty have many themes, but; one underling theme throughout them all, is tradition. In Shirley Jacksons The Lottery Once a year the villagers amass in the center of town to partake in the lottery. They anticipate the arrival of Mr. Summers and the black box, inside the box are slips of paper with one having a black dot. Whoever draws the dot wins and precedes to get stoned to death. The reason behind this is unknown to the villagers, but it is a tradition they are not willing to abandon. According to critics Jacksons tradition theme is a modern representation of the primitive annual scapegoat rite to appease the forces of the new year, to insure fertility. Primitive man, it seems, could not distinguish natural from moral phenomenaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Used to be a saying Lottery in June, corn be heavy soon. (Lainhoff). The meaning behind the Lottery lost but the villagers refuse to abandon it, simply because it is tradition. In A Rose for Emily a young woman in the early 1900s refuses to accept change, she did not join the new society and lives in the past. Emily did not acknowledge her father and the colonels death, she did not update to the new way of living. Emily did not pay taxes and her house had once been white, decorated with cupolas and spires and scrolled balconies in the heavily lightsome style of the seventies, set on what had once been our most select street Emily had become a tradition, a duty, and a care; a sort of hereditary obligation upon the town. the difference between the attitude of Judge Stevens (who is over eighty years old) and the attitude of the young man who comes to him about the smell at Emilys place. For the young man (who is a member of the rising generation) it is easy. For him, Miss Emilys world has ceased to exist. (West). In the end, Emilys derangement is revealed when the community enters her bedroom and they see a long strand of iron-gray hair on the pillow beside Ho mer Barrons corpse when traditions and its values center around hereditary privilege, it will eventually lead to social decay. Emilys life and her decaying house symbolize the effects of accepting ignorance and complacency when its built-in traditions. Eudora Weltys A Worn Path shows Phoenix Jackson an elderly woman traveling a treacherous path numerous times in order to get medicine to save her grandsons life overtime the journey has become a sort of tradition for her. Like Phoenix, you work all your life to find your way, through all the obstructions and the false appearances and the upsets you may have brought on yourself, to reach a meaning-And finally too, like Phoenix, you have to assume that [you] are working in [the] aid of life, not death. (Barnhisel). Phoenix is old and near the end of her life, but; like a phoenix she rises. She starts the journey mentally prepared to overcome the obstacles that await her. Her grandson symbolizes the new Phoenix that will be given life when she perishes. When a traditions origin/meaning are no longer known, it begs the question; should the tradition still be followed as in The Lottery and that traditions centered around unchecked hereditary privilege may lead to social ruin, like Emily in A rose for Emily and that new-found traditions in the service of aiding your loved ones can help you rise above many obstacles like Phoenix in A Worn Path. Traditions are a wondrous part of any culture, but; if the meaning is unknown and the ritual goes unchecked should it still be followed? References Lainhoff, Seymour. The Lottery Short Stories for Students, vol. 1, Gale Virtual  Reference Library. Gale Research, 1997. West, B. Ray,Jr. A Rose for Emily Short Stories for Students, vol.6, Gale Virtual Reference  Library. Gale Research, 1999. Barnhisel, Greg. A Worn Path Short Stories for Students, vol. 2, Gale Virtual Reference  Library. Gale Research, 1997.

Impact of Micro Enterprise Loan of Developments of Micro Enterprises in Bangladesh

Table of Contents 1Introduction:6 1. 1Objectives:6 1. 2Scope of the Study:7 1. 3Methodology and Data Collection:8 1. 4Limitations:11 2Institute of Microfinance (InM)13 2. 1Vision:13 2. 2Mission:13 2. 3Governance:14 2. 4Governing Body14 2. 5Current Governing Body of InM14 2. 6General Body15 2. 7Activities of the Institution:16 2. 8Research:16 2. 9Trainings:17 3Evaluation and Development of Microfinance Sector:20 4The Microfinance Sector In Bangladesh:25 4. 1The Microfinance Regulation:26 4. 2The Microfinance Institutions:28 4. 3Microfinance Delivery Mechanism:29 4. 4Microfinance Products:30 Trends and Growth of Microfinance Program of MFIs:35 5. 1Employment and Gender35 5. 2Membership in MFI-NGOs37 5. 3Trends in Lending Behavior39 5. 4Intensity in Number of Loans:41 5. 5Loans Disbursement:41 5. 6Average Size of Loans Disbursed:41 5. 7Recovery Rate:42 5. 8Loans Outstanding:44 5. 9Trends in Savings Mobilization46 5. 10Net Savings per Member:46 5. 11Savings withdrawal Rate:49 5. 12Financ ing of Loans: Loan Revolving Fund50 6Microenterprise in Bangladesh54 6. 1Definition of Microenterprise:54 6. 2Role of Microenterprise in the Present Context of Economy:55 Microenterprise Loan Demand Side Analysis59 7. 1Education:59 7. 2Sources of Finances:59 7. 3Number of Employees or Labor:60 7. 4Business Plan:61 7. 5Governmental Aids and Regulations:61 7. 6Financial Institutions:61 8Microenterprise Loan Supply Side Analysis64 8. 1Major Providers of Microenterprise Loan:69 8. 1. 1Bangladesh Extensions Education Services:69 8. 1. 2Objectives69 8. 1. 3Achievement70 8. 2BURO Bangladesh72 8. 3Grameen Bank:73 8. 3. 1Eligibility:74 8. 3. 2Terms and conditions:74 8. 3. 3Sectors covered:74 8. 3. 4Overview of microenterprise loan of Grameen Bank74 8. ASA Bangladesh:76 8. 4. 1Small Business Loan Program:76 8. 4. 2Small Entreprenuer Lending:76 9Impact of Microenterprise loan on Income generation78 9. 1Impact of Microcredit lending on the revenue of the microenterprises:78 9. 1. 1Hypothesis:78 9. 1. 2Model:78 9. 1. 3Analysis:78 9. 1. 4Findings:79 9. 2Impact of Loan Amount on the Microenterprise Revenue:80 9. 2. 1Hypothesis:80 9. 2. 2Model:80 9. 2. 3Analysis:80 9. 2. 4Findings:81 9. 3Impact of Training on the revenue of the microenterprises:82 9. 3. 1Hypothesis:82 9. 3. 2Model:82 9. 3. 3Analysis:82 9. 3. 4Findings:84 10Case Study:86 0. 1Success Story86 10. 2Failure Story91 11Conclusion and Recommendations:97 List of Tables and Figures: Table 1: Staff Strength and Growth of MFI-NGOs35 Table 2: Growth of Membership38 Table 3: Borrower and Member Ratio (%)39 Table 4: Average Loan Size (Tk)41 Table 5: Loan Portfolio Quality through recovery Rate41 Table 6: Loan Portfolio Quality – Overdue in Loans Outstanding42 Table 7: Loan Performance through Outstanding Loan Size (Tk. )43 Table 8: Net Savings Performance46 Table 9: Savings Withdrawal Rate (%)48 Table 10: Distribution of Cumulative Loan Fund by Sources50 Table 11: Sources of Finance of Microenterprises58 Table 12: Distribution of Loan by Stated Purpose:63 Table 13: Change in the Distribution of Loan by Stated Purpose:64 Table 14: Micro Enterprise Loan in Various Sectors (July 2008-June 2009) by BEES71 Table 15: Loan Disbursements by BURO72 Table 16: Microenterprise Loan by GB73 Table 17: Loan Disbursed to Male Borrower by GB74 Table 18: Loan Disbursed to Female Borrower by GB74 Figure 1: Percent distribution of Staff of MFI-NGOs by gender 200935 Figure 2: Percent distribution of Staff of MFI-NGOs by gender 200835 Figure 3: Trend in Credit Staff of MFI-NGOs36 Figure 4: Percent Distribution of Membership in MFI-NGOs by Rural and Urban Areas in 200936 Figure 5: Percent Distribution of Membership in MFI-NGOs by Rural and Urban Areas in 200836 Figure 6: Trend in Membership by Location of MFI-NGOs37 Figure 7: Distribution of Growth of Membership37 Figure 8: Loan Outstanding43 Figure 9: Loans Outstanding Per Borrower by Gender44 Figure 10: Loans Outstanding Per Borrower by Location45 Figure 11: Trends in Net Savings per Member by Gender46 Figure 12: Trends in Net Savings per Member by Location47 Figure 13: Percent Distribution of Loans by Stated Purposes in 200965 Figure 14: Percent Distribution of Loans by Stated Purposes in 200865 Figure 15: Percent Distribution of Loans by Stated Purposes in 200766 Figure 16: Percent Distribution of Loans by Stated Purposes in 200666 Figure 17: Trend of Microenterprise Loan Along with Total Loan:67 Figure 18: Microenterprise Loan as Percentage of Total Loan:68 Introduction: The magnitude of micro-entrepreneurial activities plays a decisive role in the economic development of the rural livelihoods, especially in third world countries. Micro-entrepreneurship has always been considered as a proven instrument to fight poverty in an effective manner. As a consequence, poverty alleviation through rural centric microentrepreneurship development has been focused for more than the last thirty five years in Bangladesh. This development of micro-credit programs and micro-enterprise in Bangladesh has emerged as a major strategy for the alleviation of poverty and unemployment that continue to pose problems to the economic and social development in the country. Government and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have adopted several approaches and strategies to overcome these issues. Relying on peer pressure from borrower group members rather than on collateral for repayment, micro-credit operation in Bangladesh has been a sustained success story, efficiently recycling lending resources with increasing disbursements, high recovery and a low rate of late payment, making a significant contribution to micro-enterprises with income and employment generation, and private sector enterprise development. The objective of the study is to examine the impact of micro-credit on micro enterprises and provide an overall analysis of the micro credit program in Bangladesh and their role in developing microenterprises in Bangladesh. The micro-credit programs have been developed with the aims of the provision of credit to the poor and the development of micro-enterprises through rural women, with the ultimate goal of the alleviation of poverty in the country. Objectives: The main concern of the study is to develop a clear understanding about the role of microfinance institutions in developing microenterprises in Bangladesh. So, the study mainly focuses on the microenterprises & microfinance institutions of Bangladesh and how the MFIs are functioning to develop the microenterprise of Bangladesh. To find out this the paper will look into the various aspects of the microenterprise and microenterprise loans and the providers of such loan. This study will try to fulfill the following objectives. 1. To have an overview of the history of microfinance in Bangladesh: Under this objective I will try to gain understanding about different development phases through which the microfinance sector of Bangladesh has reached to current position. . To develop a clear insight about the microfinance sector of the Bangladesh: In this part I will focus on various institutional frameworks of microfinance sector, its rules and regulation, microfinance mechanism and various institutions working in this sector. 3. To analyze the recent development of the microfinance sector of Bangladesh: This part of the study will focus on the recent development of microfinance sector based on data from 2007-2009. The part will try to reveal recent status of microfinance sector by evaluating various aspects. 4. To study the market and reveal the actual demand scenario for microenterprise loan. An overview of the demand scenario of the microenterprise loan will be presented in this part, this will focus on the sources of microenterprise capital to have demand scenario of microenterprise loan. 5. To investigate the current supply scenario of the microenterprise loan: By analyzing previous and current data a brief scenario of the supply condition of microenterprise loan will be made in this part. A study on the major providers of microenterprise loan will also e done. 6. To exhibit the impact of microenterprise loan on the income of the borrower: A statistical analysis will be made to find out the impact of microenterprise loan on the borrowers income and consumption. Scope of the Study: As the title of the study suggests, the study will evolve around the microfinance sector of the Bangladesh as well as their role in providing finance to microenterprises. So, it can be said that it will cover the whole microfinance sector of Bangladesh with emphasis on microenterprise loan. A thorough analysis will basically cover * The emergence and development of microfinance sector in Bangladesh * Its various aspect, rules & regulation * Procedure and mechanism for providing microfinance * Recent development, present scenario and trend in microfinance * Sector wise comparisons on various aspects * Opportunities for development * Major providers of microfinance and their role in providing microenterprises loan, * Demand side and supply side analysis of microenterprise loan * Impact of microenterprise loan on the income and consumption of the microenterprise owners. * Case study Methodology and Data Collection: Both the qualitative and quantitative analysis will be done in the study. For selecting methodology I divided the whole report into six major parts. Each part will grow depending on different methodology. In the following part I will describe the methodology for each part independently. Part 1: Analysis of the Microfinance sector of Bangladesh This part will totally done by analyzing secondary data. In the first segment of the part the history of microfinance will be described and a brief overview of the development of microfinance sector from the beginning to the 21st century will be made. In this segment I will mainly focus on the four development phase of microfinance sector namely action research phase in the 1970s, micro credit development phase in the 1980s, consolidation phase in the 1990s and expansion phase from 2000 onwards. In the next segment I will describe the microfinance sector with an overall description about the microfinance regulation, the microfinance Institutions, microfinance delivery mechanism and microfinance products. In the last and final segment of this part I will show the trend analysis of the microfinance sector for the last three years. I will use extensive table, charts and graphs to explain the trends that were prevailing in the sector. I will cover the following areas in the trend analysis part; employment and gender, membership in MFI-NGOs, trends in lending behavior, trends in savings mobilization, financing of loans, loan revolving fund etc. Part 2: Microenterprises in Bangladesh This part is also depended totally on secondary sources of data. The central point of this part is microenterprises in Bangladesh. Here I will provide the definition of microenterprise in Bangladesh and the role of microenterprises in present economic context. Part 3: Demand Side Analysis This part will use primary data to collect information about the demand side of the microenterprise loan that is owner of microenterprises. For the analysis data are collected from the primary sources. For the study 120 owner of micro enterprises are selected from different areas of Bangladesh. Out of these 120 businessmen 30 are collected from Dhaka City, 30 from Chandpur and Comilla District, 30 from Chittagong City and 30 from Sylhet city. The businesses which have capital up to $10,000 are selected for this study. For better analysis of true picture of micro enterprises, businesses that are started within 5 years are selected. Most of the selected businesses are grosser shop (50), readymade garments shop (30), big poultry shops (10), libraries and educational shops (30). Data are collected by two ways – questionnaire and personal interview. Part 4: Supply Side Analysis Secondary information from various printed materials i. e. publications and websites are used to collect data for this part. In this part I will provide segment wise microfinance distribution by the MFIs of Bangladesh for the last three years. I will also provide the trend of microenterprise loan and changes in the amount of loan disbursed by the MFIs from year to year. In this part I will also provide information about the big four institute of microenterprise loan providers with a descriptive analysis of their microenterprise loan scheme. Part 5: Impact Analysis of Microenterprise Loan These parts will analysis the impact of microenterprise loan on the income and consumption of the borrower. For the analysis I will use Ordinary Leas Square Method for analyzing impact. The data will be collected from the survey data provided by Institute of Microfinance to me for this purpose. In the data set I have information about both the borrower and non borrower of microenterprise loan. So I have decided to define models for impact assessment. Effect of Borrowing: In the first model I want to use Income from the microenterprise as a dependent variable and starting assets of the microenterprise (i. e. land, building etc. & borrower or non-borrower as dependent variable to find out whether the borrower has more capacity to generate more income. Hypothesis: H1= Borrower of microenterprise loan are able to generate more income than non-borrower H0= Borrower of microenterprise loan are not able to generate more income than non-borrower Model: Ii =? + ? 1li + ? 2ei + ? 3bi + ? 4oi + ? 5bri Here, I= Income from the Microenterprise l = Land e = Equipment b = Buildings o = Others assets br = Borrower or Non-borrower (dummy variable) Effect of Loan Amount: On the other hand I also want to find out is the amount of microenterprise loan effect the income of the borrowers. For this I want to use income from microenterprise as dependent variable and starting assets and amount of loan s independent variable. Hypothesis: H1 = Loan amount has a positive effect on borrower’s income H0 = Loan amount has a negative effect on borrower’s income Model: Ii =? + ? 1li + ? 2ei + ? 3bi + ? 4oi + ? 5 lni Here, I= Income from the Microenterprise l = Land e = Equipment b = Buildings o = Other assets ln =Borrowed amount Effect of Training: To find ou t if training has any impact on the earnings of the microenterprise owners I here develop a model where I tried to figure out the relationship between training and income of the microenterprises. In this purpose I used the same model used for loan amount but I include one more independent variable that is training (dummy yes or no). Hypothesis: H1 = Training has positive effect on borrower’s income H0 = Training has negative effect on borrower’s income Model: Ii =? + ? 1li + ? 2ei + ? 3bi + ? 4oi + ? 5 lni + ? 6 ti Here, I= Income from the Microenterprise l = Land e = Equipment b = Buildings o = Other assets ln =Borrowed amount t = Training (dummy) Part 6: Case Study: In this part I will describe two successful and two unsuccessful case of microenterprise loan. I will provide will brief description of the project and reasons for success or failure will be provided. Limitations: Paucity of resources and lack of capacity were the main limitations for the study. However, restricted by these limitations I have tried to give my best effort to prepare the report. Overview of the Organization ————————————————- Institute of Microfinance (InM) Institute of Microfinance (InM) is a non-profit organization established primarily for meeting research and training needs of national as well as global microcredit programs. It endeavors to enhance and improve the microfinance-related research and training climate particularly in Bangladesh. The Institute is contemplating a transition to a much broader center of excellence in the area of microfinance, enterprise development, poverty reduction and allied areas at the national and international levels through collaborative approach to research, knowledge management, training and education, and participation of reputed institutions and scholars in its programs. The Institute’s main focus is on developing itself as a center of excellence with emphasis on research, training, academic and knowledge management. However, research is the most prominent among all the activities and its research activity centers around microfinance, poverty and development issues. InM was initiated and promoted by the Palli Karma-Sahayak Foundation (PKSF), and is now registered as an independent non-profit institution under the Societies Registration Act 1860. InM is currently funded mainly by UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) through its Promoting Financial Services for Poverty Reduction Program (PROSPER). InM is responsible for developing overall capacity in the microfinance sector and to achieve knowledge creation, management and dissemination in the area of microfinance and poverty. In addition to expanding the research, training and consultancy services for microfinance practitioners, PROSPER has been providing assistance to enable microfinance institutions to access demanded training and consultancy services from accredited providers. InM is also committed to support interested institutions to offer long-term microfinance courses. Vision: Towards establishing a poverty free world, InM sees itself as a frontline center of excellence in knowledge creation and management. Mission: Firstly, InM will contribute to the capacity building of the microfinance sector in Bangladesh through training and academic programs for human resource development, conducting research studies and dissemination of findings, regular dissemination of new knowledge and technology, for the benefits of the sector. Secondly, the institute should emerge as a center of excellence in microfinance, poverty, enterprise development, and other allied areas at the national and international levels through building network with microfinance institutions, sector stakeholders, reputed researchers, thinkers and professionals, and exchange of ideas and experiences. Governance: Institute is governed by a two-tier–Governing Body and General Body–governance system. The basic governance lies with the Governing Body. It comprises of seven members, including the Executive Director of the Institute as an ex-officio member. The General Body is the Institute’s highest authority. It is responsible for the overall policy guidance and direction for efficient functioning of the Institute. Total number of members of the General Body is 8, including 7 (seven) members of the Governing Body. Governing Body The Institute is governed by a two-tier–governance structure-Governing Body and General Body. The basic governance lies with the Governing Body. It comprises of seven (7) members, including the Executive Director of the Institute as an ex-officio member. Current Governing Body of InM Chairman Professor Wahiduddin Mahmud Former Advisor to the Caretaker Government of Bangladesh, and Member of the United Nations Committee for Development Policy (UN CDP) Members Dr. Iqbal Mahmud Professor Emeritus Chemical Engineering Department Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET) Dr. Quazi Mesbahuddin Ahmed Managing Director Palli Karma-Sahayak Foundation (PKSF) Ms. Rasheda K. Choudhury Former Advisor to the Caretaker Government of Bangladesh, and Executive Director Campaign for Popular Education (CAMPE) Dr. Pratima Paul-Majumder Senior Research Fellow Bangladesh Institute of Development Studies (BIDS) Dr. Toufic Ahmad Choudhury Director General Bangladesh Institute of Bank Management (BIBM) Dr. Md. Mosleh Uddin Sadeque Executive Director (Interim) Institute of Microfinance (InM) General Body The General Body is the Institute’s highest authority. It is responsible for the overall policy guidance and direction for efficient functioning of the Institute. Total members of the General Body is thirteen (13) including seven (7) members of the Governing Body. Other members of the General Body are as follows: Mr. Khondkar Ibrahim Khaled Chairman Bangladesh Krishi Bank (BKB) Professor A. K. M. Nurun Nabi Department of Population Sciences University of Dhaka Dr. Jadab Chandra Saha Former Managing Director Bangladesh Krishi Bank Ms. Parveen Mahmud President Institute of Chartered Accountants of Bangladesh (ICAB) Dr. M. A. Hakim Professor & Chairman Department of Business Administration University of Development Alternative (UODA) Dr. Jashim Uddin General Manager (Administration) Palli Karma-Sahayak Foundation (PKSF) Activities of the Institution: The Institute has a plan to work with three divisions: Research and Knowledge Management * Education and Training * Administration and Accounts Research: Research is the most prominent among the InM activities. The major focus of its research is on microfinance, poverty, and development issues. InM conducts research studies independently and/or jointly with distinguished researchers and institutions from home and abroad. The underlying objective of the research agenda is to ge t insights into the problems of poverty and development and also to assess the impact of different interventions. On-going Research Projects Multiple Memberships (Overlapping) in Microcredit Program. * Strategic Behavior of NGOs/MFIs in Bangladesh * Health and Nutrition among the Beneficiaries of Microfinance Institutions (MFI) in Rural Bangladesh. * Microinsurance, Poverty and Vulnerability in Bangladesh (Phase-I) * Searching for an Explanation of Differences in Poverty Levels and Trends at Sub-National Levels. * Understanding the Poverty and Resource Dichotomy- An Inquiry into the Livelihood of any Backward Community in Resource-Rich Areas of Bangladesh. * Access to Financial Services (Phase -1) Poverty Alleviation through Enhanced Usage of Migrant Remittance * Assessment of the Impact of PKSF Interventions on Sustainability of Partner Organizations (POs) * Impact of Microcredit on agricultural Farm Performance and food security in Bangladesh. * Internal Female Migration in Rural Bangladesh: An Effective Household Coping Strategy. * Differentiated Corporate Governance and MFI Performance in Bangladesh. * Poverty Dynamics in Rural Areas of Bangladesh: Phase-I * Designing Appropriate Microinsurance Products for the Low Income Households Completed Research Projects Baseline Study of Food Security for Vulnerable Group Development and Ultra Poor Beneficiaries Project (Sponsored by PKSF) * Identification of Appropriate Micro Insurance Approach for Ultra Poor of Bangladesh. (Sponsored by UNDP) * Urban Microfinance in Bangladesh * Monga in Greater Rangpur: Intensity, Coping, Vulnerability, and the Impact of Mitigating Strategies. * Impact of Cash for Work Program under PRIME in Lalmonirhat Districtct. (PKSF & InM) * Overlapping in Microcredit Programs in Patrail Union, Tangail. PKSF & InM) * Impact of PRIME Interventions on Monga Mitigation in Greater Rangpur Region: PhaseI Trainings: There is a growing demand to expand the InM's activities to support training progr ams to build the capacity of the MFIs so that practitioners can make tangible efforts towards building a sustainable microfinance sector. The institute intends to embark upon providing training to the development practitioners, journalists, editors, senior executives of different MFIs, policymakers, regulators, government officials and international agencies. In addition, it will act as a facilitator in capacity building of the existing training institutions. InM has a future plan to organize training programs for the participants even from outside Bangladesh. InM wants to put special thrust on-need-based training that requires customized, standard and integrated training modules for the training programs. Furthermore, the institute is mandated to play active role to capacity building of the institutions in the microfinance sector in Bangladesh. Module Development: InM has taken initiative to prepare standardized training module for the MFIs as per suggestions of the training expert committee. InM wants to put special thrust on training rather than prototype training which needs customized, standard and integrated training module for the training courses. Initially the following modules are developed by InM. * Microfinance Operations and Management. * Basic Book Keeping and Accounting Management for MFIs. * Improving Participatory Managerial Skills and Management Style. * Monitoring and Evaluation of Microfinance Program. Legal Regulatory System and Governance. Training Conducted by InM * March 27-31, 2011: Pilot Training Program on Microfinance Operations and Management with PMUK * February 07-11, 2011: Participatory Monitoring and Evaluation training at ELD, Thailand * December 5-15, 2010: Training of Master Trainers’ with AIT, Thailand * July 25-29, 2010: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) * May 9-20, 2010: Training program for offic ials of Microcredit Regulatory Authority (MRA) * March 8, 2010: Training on Effective Time Management March 7-11, 2010: Basic Book Keeping and Accounting Management at UDDIPAN, Dhaka * February 8, 2010: Pilot Training on Microfinance Operations and Management (MOM) at CDF * January 24-28, 2010: Pilot Training Program on Basic Book Keeping and Accounting Management for MFIs with BRAC * January 17-21, 2010: Pilot Training Program on Basic Book Keeping and Accounting Management for MFIs with YPSA * January 10-14, 2010: Pilot Training Program on Basic Book Keeping and Accounting Management for MFIs with CDF * October 25-29, 2009: TOT on Basic Book Keeping and Accounting Management for MFIs * October 11-15, 2009: PRA Training for Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) / JICA Participants: * August 16-20, 2009: TOT for Dhaka City Corporation (DCC) / JICA Participants * July 19 – 29, 2009: TOT on Microfinance Operation and Management for Service Providers * December 26-28, 2006: Training prog ram titled â€Å"Poverty, Microfinance and Development† for Journalists of both Newspapers and Electronic Media. Evaluation and Development of the Microfinance Sector in Bangladesh ————————————————- Evaluation and Development of Microfinance Sector: The development of MFIs took place in several distinct phases over the last four decades. Micro credit was developed in the 1970s as a response to the relief and rehabilitation needs of post- independent Bangladesh when the government and private initiatives were focused on restoring livelihoods through income generating activities. The development of the microfinance sector has undergone four distinct phases in the past four decades: I. Action research phase in the 1970s II. Micro credit development phase in the 1980s III. Consolidation phase in the 1990s IV. Expansion phase from 2000 onwards In the 1970s, development organizations including local and international NGOs were involved in relief and rehabilitation. In addition to community development, health, literacy, agricultural sector development programs and food relief programs, some initiated income generation activities to help the landless poor, particularly women earn supplemental income. A major constraint faced by the population was the lack of access to capital for investment in income generating activities, so few could actually start enterprises. In the mid 70s, Grameen Bank initiated its ‘Jobra' experiment using the solidarity group-based credit delivery system using peer pressure and group guarantee to ensure timely repayment. The project achieved a high rate of success and it was formalized as Grameen Bank, with a special license obtained from the Bangladesh Bank. Grameen Bank remains the only bank with a poverty alleviation bank license. The license is of particular note as it allows Grameen as a licensed and regulated bank to mobilize savings legally, from members and non-members. Also in the 1970's, the Bangladesh Bank initiated the Dheki Rin Prokolpa in collaboration iwth an NGO Swanirvar Bangladesh. Several other NGOs were also trying out various micro credit mechanisms and soon micro credit programs became a part of every social development NGO, even if it was not a major part of the program. The 1980s is known as the period of microfinance program development. The success of Grameen Bank began to motivate social development NGOs to expand their economic development programs, with a particular emphasis on microcredit. The availability of donor grants resulted in the creation of revolving loan funds to make loans to NGO members for various income generating activities. NGOs began to expand their micro credit programs and some like ASA took a decision to shift focus from social and community development work to minimalist micro credit intermediation. In the 1990's, the Palli Karma-Sahayak Foundation (PKSF) was established as the promoted apex wholesaler financed with government funds and the World Bank. As a result, NGOs providing financial services had the benefit of relatively low cost refinancing along with technical assistance to enhance their institutional infrastructure and management information systems to expand outreach, improve efficiency and increase self- sufficiency to reduce dependence on grant funds. The first NGO to achieve full operational self- sufficiency and financial self-sufficiency was ASA. In the late 1990s, ASA was able to move away from donor grants and operate its microcredit portfolio through earned income, savings, and equity converted from the grants received previously. ASA became the largest borrower of PKSF funds and was eligible for loans from commercial banks. Soon other NGOs like BRAC and Proshika began to scale up their micro credit programs, although their continued focus in their social and community development programs delayed their targets for financial self-sufficiency. Towards the end of 1990, the microfinance sector was well established with the â€Å"Big Four† namely, Grameen Bank, ASA, BRAC and Proshika who in turn promoted smaller NGOs providing refinancing as well as technical support in their respective development methodology and microfinance practices. Although the vast majority of NGOs adopted the Grameen style of group lending and focused on rural areas, there were some new initiatives. For instance, in the early 90s, an NGO named Shakti Foundation took on the challenge of providing microfinance services to urban women living in the Dhaka slums who had limited literacy and numeracy skills and no permanent address, as slum evictions were common. The NGO Asharai promoted a savings based self-help group model of microfinance combined with community development services for tribal communities in the northwest part of Bangladesh. RDRS, an integrated service provider focused on micro credit initiatives along with agricultural interventions to increase the food sustainability of the drought affected population in the northern villages of Rangpur and Dinajpur districts. BURO Tangail, with its centre in the highly productive town of Tangail, started with a modified Grameen type methodology, but used action research and piloting of products to develop a range of credit and savings products, including flexible savings and term deposits. TMSS based in Bogra started with an integrated community development approach, using micro credit as a means to ensure sustainable development of the rural economy with a focus on social forestry, water resource management, agricultural and livestock management, fisheries and health, and now has grown into one of the top 10 MFIs in the country. Safe Save, a pilot project that took on the legal framework of a savings and credit cooperative started as a Lilliputian provider amongst the giants; however, has attained international fame for its success in innovating a savings based individual lending model in urban Dhaka, in contrast to the dominant Bangladeshi model of a credit-led group- based lending model for rural clients. The fourth phase was one of professionalization and expansion of microfinance portfolios, and moving towards commercialized funds to enhance sustainability. In the late 1990s, with the increasing threat of declining donor funds NGOs began to experience the need to enhance management capacity and develop action plans to access loans in order to expand outreach to attain scale and sustainability. In the last decade a number of NGOs have experienced tremendous expansion, with at least a dozen succeeding in reaching over one million clients. Bilateral donors and international development agencies have contributed significantly to this growth in the sector by providing technical assistance support, financing technical support and institutional development and sponsoring training within and outside the country to introduce the sector to international experiences. PKSF and a number of commercial banks have contributed to the expansion and outreach by refinancing microfinance portfolios to respond to increasing need for loan funds from existing and new customers. The support of action research and pilot testing of new products has added rigor and vitality to the sector. Expansion of microfinance portfolios has continued to the end of the 1990s and many MFIs are still experiencing high rates of growth with continued availability of commercial funds, increasing income from the loan portfolio, and member savings. The current phase is formalization and transformation. The larger and medium sized NGOs will prepare to transform into formal financial institutions in accordance with the newly established Microfinance Regulatory Authority Act, with the objective of integrating into the formal financial sector to gain access to additional sources of capital and equity as well as mobilize savings from the public. Smaller NGOs that are unable to transform due to low levels of equity and inadequate scale or performance may consider mergers to consolidate portfolios and combine their strengths to overcome weaknesses. Many of the smaller MFIs that have not been able to attain the adequate levels of sustainability and retain a committed customer base in competitive markets may be forced out of business. The sector will be faced with some new challenges, including intensified competition in some of the rural and urban markets where market saturation is already evident, and innovating mechanisms to service the markets that remain unbanked, including the extreme poor or â€Å"hard core poor† and the populations in remote areas that remain beyond the reach of either the formal banks or NGO MFIs. The Microfinance Sector of Bangladesh ————————————————- The Microfinance Sector In Bangladesh: The microfinance sector in Bangladesh consists of the following stakeholders who are categorized as the micro, micro and macro levels. The micro level consists of the existing clientele and the potential target client group who remain unserved or underserved. The micro level also consists of the different kinds of providers, including the formal, semi-formal and informal providers such as moneylenders, pawnbrokers and rotating credit and savings associations. The micro-level consists of the financing partners, including donors, refinancing partners, development finance institutions, multilateral and bilateral aid agencies, commercial banks, specialized banks, development banks, as well as government agencies. Private investors are new comers in the micro-level providing equity and capital to MFIs. The micro level also includes technical support providers including training institutions, networking institutions, microfinance associations, rating agencies, audit firms, consulting firms, independent consultants and academic or research institutions. The macro level consists of the regulatory bodies including the Central Bank or Bangladesh Bank and the Ministry of Finance. A principal player within the macro level is the NGO Affairs Bureau (NGOAB) which governs and supervises the NGO microfinance providers, including local and international NGOs with programs in Bangladesh. About 62 percent of the borrowers live below the poverty line. The vast majority of these clients do not have physical collateral to secure loans and need alternative collateral mechanisms. The 2005 World Bank report states that a total of 9. 6 million households are being served by MFIs. The total number of clients served by microfinance sector is approximately 24. 25 million with effective coverage to about 17. 32 million clients showing a substantial gap between demand and supply. Microfinance institutions, including Grameen Bank, collectively service more than 60 percent of the demand, with Grameen serving about 20 percent of the total. Women constitute 90 percent of the clientele. Average loan sizes are around Tk. 4000 (US$60). In 2006, micro credit loans constituted about 44 percent of the total disbursements in the credit sector. The microfinance providers are primarily MF NGO and a few non-bank financial institutions (NBFIs), and one specialized microfinance bank, namely Grameen Bank. Some of the ministries or divisions of the Government of Bangladesh support large micro credit projects and some of the commercial banks have established windows for microfinance loans. Microfinance NGOs cover the largest share of the microfinance market. A report published by the Micro credit Regulatory Authority (MRA) reveals that up to June 30, 2006, states that the volume of loans outstanding for the 651 major NGO- MFIs is US $1105. 86 million and CDF's statistics for 2006 show that up to December 2006, cumulative disbursement of 611 major MFIs was approximately US$8,171. 71 million. Grameen Bank is the only MFI with a specialized bank license. The MF NGOs are led by three very large organizations namely ASA, BRAC and Proshika which represent 94% of the total sector, in terms of numbers and more than 73% of the savings. The remaining part of the sector is comprised of 332 small & very small organizations. The Government of Bangladesh is a major stakeholder. The Microfinance Regulation: Most of the NGOs providing financial services were established as development organizations, and registered as LNGOs or INGOs. Most of the microfinance portfolios were grown on grant funds from foreign sources. With the increasing inflow of external resources, the government concerned with transparency and accountability created the NGO Affairs Bureau (NGOAB) in 1991. NGOAB played the role of the primary regulator of the development NGOs supported by foreign funds, providing microfinance services in the country. The fact that MFIs remained unregulated for the past four decades has had an impact on their substantial growth in outreach and sustainability as well as promoted innovation. However, as the sector has acquired significant scale particularly in terms of deposits there is a concern regarding depositor security and the interests of poor clients. They can easily be exploited by microfinance providers, especially as many providers are motivated more by the potential for profit rather than to achieve social development objective. Recent reform measures include the reformation of previous acts creating the Micro Credit Regulatory Authority Act 2006, building on the revious acts such as the Societies Registration Act 1860 (the same as in India) Companies Act 1913, Trusts Act 1882, Charitable and Religious Trust Act 1920 and Cooperative Societies Ordinance 1984 that have created the regulatory framework for the industry in the past. The Bangladesh Bank in coordination with NGOAB and in consu ltation with the microfinance NGOs represented by CDF and PKSF have established the Microfinance Regulatory Authority and created the Micro Credit Regulatory Authority Act 2006. All NGOs providing micro credit have to register with both the NGOAB if they are receiving foreign funds as well as the Microfinance Regulatory Authority if they wish to continue providing financial services. In time it is expected that all MFIs will apply for license, and be formalized and integrated into the formal financial sector. There are some in the industry who feel that it is essential to have a regulatory framework to protect the sustainability of the sector, foster innovation and nurture growth, and most importantly to protect the interests of the clients while there are others who fear that regulation could strangulate growth and innovation. The MRA Act requires all MFIs to register with the MRA in order to operate legally in the country in the provision of microfinance services. The MRA will issue and cancel licenses for micro finance operators, oversee, supervise and facilitate the entire range of activities of MFIs. The MRA will establish a depositor's insurance fund to ensure safety of the depositors and to secure all MFI deposits. All MFIs will be required to maintain a reserve fund which cannot be spent without prior permission of the authority. MFIs will not be allowed to take deposits from persons other than their members (i. e. no mobilization of deposits from the public who are not members of the MFI). MFIs that deviate from the norms will be subject to punishment of not more than one year of imprisonment or a fine of not more than Tk. 500,000 (US$ 7143). Furthermore, the MRA will keep a watch over the MFIs in Bangladesh in order to safe guard the interests of microfinance clients, as well as ensure the protection of microfinance customers against overpricing. Price setting will be judged by the government in keeping with guidelines and regulatory provisions. Resources will be allocated from the commercial banks and formal financial sector to meet the demand for micro credit. The MRA will be responsible for monitoring and evaluation of performance. The Act is a fairly recent intervention in a sector that has grown and developed and come of age over a period of four decades. It will take time for the stakeholders to get accustomed to the new regulatory framework and in turn for the regulatory authority to work out the existing areas of weakness or gaps in the Act and in the systems that are being established for registration, appraisal, licensing, monitoring and supervision. The present framework is a starting point. There will be modifications and amendments in the future. At present the legal frameworks do not include the option of a microfinance bank, as there is a fear of possible financial mismanagement resulting from limited controlling capacity of the newly formed MRA; however, in future this option may be provided based on the demand from MFIs for this particular legal framework and the capacity of the MRA to license and supervise these entities. Another critical concern is the exclusion of foreign microfinance institutions that are promoted by international NGOs. Local MFIs are concerned that these provides will have an unfair advantage as they will have continued access to financial resources from external sources which could result in negative competition. Domestic MFIs feel strongly that the MRA should establish a policy that monitors the cash flow into foreign MFIs and closely monitors their expansion strategies. Although insurance is an essential product to provide a social safety net to protect vulnerable populations from the impact of death, disease and other shocks and emergencies, the MRA has not included microinsurance as part of the products of MFIs. Insurance is a specialized financial product and is not within the purview of the Central Bank. At present, micro insurance products offered by both insurance providers and microfinance institutions are inadequate to meet the needs of microfinance customers. The sector will have to focus its efforts on action research and pilot testing with the government contributing to providing a social safety net for the vulnerable segments of the population. The Microfinance Institutions: The first generation MFIs that emerged in the 1970s had an explicit social agenda and their focus was on poor segments of the population particularly women. The geographic focus was primarily in the rural areas, but as migration created urban poverty, microcredit programs began to shift their focus to urban lending programs. While some NGOs offer an integrated development approach, including some community development, most NGOs have transformed into microcredit focused NGOs. MFIs are categorized into four major groups, including NGO MFIs, which constitute the large proportion of MFIs, commercial banks with microfinance windows, and government line ministries that have promoted micro credit projects and programs. There is one specialized microfinance bank, namely Grameen Bank. The Grameen Bank established in 1983 under a special law with the initial support from the Bangladesh Bank is the only MFI that has been awarded a license to operate as a specialized bank for microfinance. All the other MFIs are NGOs that are registered with the NGOAB and now with the MRA. The MFIs including Grameen Bank include the Big Four that have outreach to over 3 million clients. A handful of large MFIs reach over 1 million clients. Another 20 odd MFIs are categorized as medium sized institutions with outreach to less than 100,000 clients. The rest are small and very small MFIs, with about 20,000 clients. The smallest have less than 5000 borrowers. Most of these institutions operate in the rural areas, although several of the larger institutions are now lending in both rural and urban areas. A few institutions specialize in urban microfinance. The Government promoted micro credit programs are substantially large. About thirteen ministries and fifteen divisions of the government of Bangladesh deal with microfinance activities with a cumulative disbursement of US$1238 million at the end of December 2006. The government programs are less efficient with recovery rates of about 84 percent as compared to the NGOs that have repayment rates over 90 percent. The 2005 World Bank Report indicates that a total of 9. 6 million (out of 14. million households) or 37 percent of all households in the country are currently served by microfinance services. The â€Å"Big Four† – Grameen, ASA, BRAC and Proshika – collectively account for 86 percent of the 14. 3 million active borrowers. Collectively they have more than US$1249 million in loans outstanding and over US$402 million in savings. Microfinance Delivery Mechanism: Bangladeshi MFIs are best known for large-scale provision of microfinance services to the poor women using non-traditional collateral mechanisms. With more than 90 percent of clients being rural women, MFIs have demonstrated repayment rates of over 90 percent in comparison with the formal banking sector. The average loan size of MFIs is around Taka 4000 (US$60). Microcredit is provided to poor or low income households through groups. Loan contracts are made in the name of individuals, but the group is an essential mechanism in the delivery and recovery process. Depending on the provider, the group performs different functions, including providing a cost-effective mechanism for client screening, loan appraisal, disbursement, collection, monitoring, supervision and the mechanism for delivering non-financial services. Some MFIs are now making loans to individuals as in formal banking practices, without requiring membership in a group. The main feature of Bangladeshi microfinance is the provision of loans without demanding traditional collateral as security. The solidarity group concept is embedded in the social structure of Bangladesh which consists of closely knit groups at the village level who in the absence of external mechanisms provide essential social safety net for poor households. More importantly, the Bangladesh group model was developed according to the principles of group solidarity. An MFI organizes a joint liability group of up to 5 members who then form peer pressure groups of as many as 30 individuals or 6 joint-liability groups. The primary use of the group in the Bangladesh microfinance model is to offer alternative collateral mechanisms for the target client group that is unable to offer physical collateral to secure loans. Solidarity groups† provide group guarantee by using joint liability and peer pressure principles to enforce repayment from individuals within the group. In almost all the microfinance models, loans are further secured through the collection of compulsory savings that are deposited in a loan s ecurity deposit account. The loan security deposit helps when joint-liability and group guarantee mechanisms either are inadequate or fail. Microfinance Products: The traditional microfinance loan product is usually called the â€Å"General Loan. † This is a small loan with a ceiling that is under US$100 (at present the average loan size is US$60). Loan ceilings are based on the expressed demand from members as well as the fund availability the MFI to meet the demand for loans. When members reach the maximum loan size, they have the option of applying for a larger enterprise loan if the MFI offers this product at different rates and repayment terms and conditions, or has to consider moving to another provider that offers the desired product. The General Loan is provided in cycles of up to 12 months with about 45 monthly installments consisting of equal amounts of principal and interest. Loan installments are calculated based on the average household income of the target client group, allowing the vast majority of clients to repay without undue stress; however, most clients find repayment during the early years a struggle given their lack of adequate income and financial management capacity, and clients taking larger loans can also find installments difficult to handle if household income is not sufficient to manage essential expenditures. Interest charged by MFIs varies and is calculated on a flat or declining basis depending on the operational efficiency, cost of funds, inflation and other factors specific to the institution such as fees to cover non-financial inputs to the business or social development services. Upon the successful repayment of a loan, the client is eligible to apply for a larger loan in the next cycle, where the ceiling is increased automatically by Tk. 500 (US$7). Currently, loan ceilings for the General Loan are as high as Tk. 50,000 (US$700). Clients can borrow as much as they want within the ceiling of their loan cycle. In principle there is no pressure for clients to borrow the maximum amount and can opt to take smaller amounts based on their need and their repayment capacity. In case of arrears MFIs have policies regarding penalties. In case of default, the client is closely monitored and there is some grace period to recover outstanding amounts over the subsequent installments. In case of a loan default, the MFI follows its recovery procedures, depending on the terms and conditions specified in the loan contract. In the case of collecting bad debt, the first step is to work with the group members of the joint- liability group to analyze the reasons for default in consultation with the client and the family and identify options for recouping the loan outstanding. The next step is to discuss the situation with the larger peer group to identify the best strategy to recoup the loan. Depending on the situation, either the client will take responsibility to repay the entire amount or in other cases, the group members will help by contributing from the group fund to repay the outstanding amount to keep the group in good standing with the MFI. In situations where the client is not at fault, and the reasons for default is due to death, illness or business failure due to external factors, the interest may be waived, the entire loan may be rescheduled or even waived and covered by the loan loss reserve fund of the MFI. As microfinance loans increase in size, the exposure to risk inhibits group guarantee through the group fund as a reliable or viable means of recovering losses. Therefore, in the case of larger loans, a client is eligible for larger micro enterprise loans, but must maintain membership in the group and comply with all the group requirements, including regular meetings, compulsory deposits, and deposits in the voluntary savings account. Although the group must continue to assist in the collection of bad debt, the loans are secured through the loan security deposit of the individual client as well as the attachment of secondary assets that the client can liquidate if faced by income loss causing repayment problems. In a few cases, such as ASA, loans are being made to individuals outside the group mechanism to attract a different target group of clients, including men and women with established microenterprises who are not interested in group mechanisms but are interested in borrowing from an MFI as they are not eligible for commercial bank loans. The General and Micro Enterprise Loans are generally provided for many different purposes including investment in business activities including investment in productive assets such as agricultural land, equipment, machinery, electricity connection and inventory. Microfinance clients can obtain sector programme loans for micro enterprise development in areas such as trading, service sector, food production, poultry, livestock, agriculture, sericulture, fisheries and social forestry. Some NGOs offer clients enterprise development training, technical assistance for specific sub-sectors as well as marketing inputs. General loans are provided for any profitable and socially acceptable income enerating activities such as: rural trading; rural transport; paddy husking; food processing; small shops and restaurants, etc. Although diversion of loans for household consumption needs is not encouraged, there is an understanding that money is fungible, and what is important is that income levels w ithin the household enable a client to repay her installments regularly and continue to remain a customer in good standing. General loans usually range between USD$15 and USD$160. Members are eligible to apply for larger amounts once they have repaid their outstanding loan in full and as per the terms and conditions specified in the loan contract. The micro-enterprise loans are larger than general loans, and can be borrowed both at the group level and also as individuals directly, but with more rigorous credit appraisal including a thorough household and business appraisal to assess risk and potential for repayment. The clients are usually graduates who have successfully repaid several general loans and are committed to transforming small income generating activities into sustainable micro enterprises that will provide the primary income for the household. Some MFIs offer agricultural loan products that have different terms and conditions for repayment depending on the agricultural cycle. Repayments are made with monthly installments of interest and a payment of the principle amount in one or more installments depending on the cash flow of the household. MFIs also offer loans for other purposes, including asset creation, housing improvement, house construction, purchase of homestead land, as well as education of children. Several MFIs offer loans for repair of their homes, upgrading and in some cases actual construction of home or purchase of homestead land. Bangladesh Bank now offers house-building loans to MFIs at the rate of 1 percent per annum to finance the demand for housing loans from MFI clients. The average loan size is typically USD$310. In addition to these productive or investment loans MFIs also provide other loans for emergencies, disaster mitigation, sanitary latrines and tube wells. Due to the fact that Bangladesh is often affected by natural disasters including floods and typhoons, MFIs often provide emergency loans and disaster loans to help clients cope with the loss of income and assets as a result of a disaster. Typical microfinance loan products 1. General Loan 2. Micro enterprise Loan 3. Agricultural Loan (for cultivation purposes) 4. Housing Loan or House Improvement Loan 5. Education loan 6. Emergency or Disaster Loan 7. Tube well loan 8. Sanitary latrine loan ————————————————- ————————————————- Trends and Growth of Microfinance Programs of MFIs Trends and Growth of Microfinance Program of MFIs: The previous chapter dealt basically with the overall development of the microfinance sector. This chapter presents the overall trends and growth of the sector using panel data of 126 MFI-NGOs. These MFI-NGOs, however, have mobilized around 82 percent of the members mobilized by total MFI-NGOs of the country. GB is not included among these MFI-NGOs. The use of such panel data enables to clearly understand the growth and efficiency of the MFI-NGOs in the given period. Employment and Gender MFI-NGOs have not only contributed to providing financial services but also contributed to the generation of employment. Over the past four years, 2006 through 2009, there has been remarkable growth (Table) in employment creation by the MFI-NGOs. The panel data show, these 126 MFI-NGOs created some 31,505 new employments. The increasing trend in employment creation was observed from 2006 to 2008 while a slight decrease was taken place in 2009. A negative annual growth rate of total staff in 2009 was 0. 60 percent which was drastically lower compared to positive 2. 54 percent growth in 2008 and 27. 15 percent in 2007. Over a period of four years, 2006 through 2009, the growth was around 30 percent. There is a positive relationship between program expansion and number of staff employment. Credit staffs constitute a major share of total staff. The share of credit staff in total staff was around 62 percent in 2009 while no significant change was observed from 2008. On the other hand, the other staff contributed to around 38 percent of total staff resulting a slight increase in 2009 over 2008. Table [ 1 ]: Staff Strength and Growth of MFI-NGOs Figure [ 1 ]: Percent distribution of Staff of MFI-NGOs by gender 2009 Figure [ 2 ]: Percent distribution of Staff of MFI-NGOs by gender 2008 Women empowerment has been one of the major objectives of MFIs. Although this is reflected in mobilization of female members, it is not reflected in emale employment. Only around 26 percent of total staff and around 16 percent of total credit staff were female in 2009. Although the total number of female staff increased but the growth rate declined. This is evident from Figure 2. 1. 3. This may have happened because of longer hours of work, adverse geographical condition and overall, the psyc hology of the employers. Still the growth of female staff was higher compared to the growth of male staff in 2009. The growth of female staff was 6. 63 percent compared to a negative 2. 89 percent growth of male staff in 2009. The distribution of staff of MFI-NGOs by gender has been presented in Figure. However, recruitment of local level field female staff has probably contributed to higher female employment, which indirectly stimulated women empowerment. Figure 3: Trend in Credit Staff of MFI-NGOs Membership in MFI-NGOs Figure [ 4 ]: Percent Distribution of Membership in MFI-NGOs by Rural and Urban Areas in 2009 Figure [ 5 ]: Percent Distribution of Membership in MFI-NGOs by Rural and Urban Areas in 2008 MFIs initially started their programs in rural areas. Over time, they expanded their programs to urban areas too. Microfinance in Bangladesh is synonymous to credit for landless and asset less rural poor. As such the preeminence of rural members is quite natural in the overall microcredit members mobilized. On the other hand, the magnanimity of female members in the overall membership is very usual, as microcredit as a poverty alleviation tool has taken women empowerment as one of its agenda from the very on set. A total of 22,734,381 members were mobilized up to 2009. Among them, the share of rural areas was 88. 59 percent in 2009 (Figure) compared to 89. 33 percent in 2008 (Figure). There has been an increasing trend in membership mobilization in rural areas up to 2008 since 2006 (Figure), but it decreased in 2009 by around 6 percentage point. In urban areas, the total number of members was increasing at a decreasing rate. As are evident from Table 2. , the number of female members in rural areas decreased for the first time in 2009 by around 2 percentage point compared to 2008. But over the period, 2006 to 2009, female members in the rural areas achieved a growth of around 32 percent. Figure [ 6 ]: Trend in Membership by Location of MFI-NGOs Figure [ 7 ]: Distribution of Growth of Me mbership The annual growth of rural female member was 1. 62 percent in 2009 compared to 2. 99 percent in 2008 and 12. 39 percent in 2007. The annual decrease in the number of male members in rural areas was 877,271 in 2009 from 2008 with a deceasing rate of around 26 percent. Over the period, 2006 through 2009, the rate declined by around 21 percent. An opposite scenario was seen in the growth of male members in urban areas. In this year the growth rate of male membership got rid of 1 percent negative growth of 2008 and recorded 1 percent positive growth. In 2007 male membership had 13 percent positive growth. Interestingly, some 1,257,210 members were declined in rural areas, while the number grew by 37,589 in urban areas resulting decrease of overall 1,219,621 members in 2009 compared to 2008. Over the period from 2006 to 2009, the overall growth of membership was around 20 percent and at the same time the growth of female and male members was around 30 percent and 20 (negative) percent respectively. The trend on the membership is also shown in Figure. Table [ 2 ]: Growth of Membership Trends in Lending Behavior The scenario of the sector is also possible to see through important program data, such as, amount of members' savings or group savings, total (or cumulative) number of borrowers provided loans (inclusive of repeat loans) ever, current number of borrowers, amount of cumulative loans disbursed, amount of loans outstanding with the borrowers, and amount of revolving loan funds. Borrower-Member Ratio: All the members at a given point of time may not be borrowers, and even everyone may not borrow. This is reflected in borrower-member ratio. As the panel data (Table 2. 3. 1) showed that in 2009 MFIs could provide loans to 70. 42 percent of the members compared to 74. 20 percent in 2007 and 78. 80 percent in 2007. This declining trend throws a big question to the microfinance industry about its progression with the given mandate of reaching the poor with financial services for poverty alleviation. As expected, borrower-member ratio is higher for the female than the male members. Around 73 percent of the female members had borrowed in 2009 while the percentage was around 77 in 2008 and about 83 percent in both 2007 and 2006. The higher ratio for female could be happened due to perceived financial discipline and less mobility of female. After showing a continuous increasing trend in the borrower- member ratio for male members from around 54 percent in 2006 to around 61 percent in 2008, and again it declined to around 56 percent in 2009. The borrower-member ratio for female members was around 17 percent higher than that of male members in 2009 and the trend continued also in all the years under consideration. It could be the mobility of the male borrowers that makes MFIs conservative in lending to them. Table [ 3 ]: Borrower and Member Ratio (%) There is, however, not much difference exists in borrower-member ratio in rural and urban areas. But a decreasing trend was observed in the borrower-member ratio in both the rural and urban areas. Such trend may be attributed to market saturation, mobility of members in the credit market, or the process of consolidation of the MFIs. Plausible causes need to be investigated. Intensity in Number of Loans: It is reflected in the ratio of cumulative borrowers and current borrowers. Cumulative borrowers are essentially the number of loans taken. Current borrowers represent active members. As such, the ratio of cumulative borrowers and current borrowers will give us a trend in the intensity of number of loans per borrower. The cumulative number of borrowers of 126 MFI-NGOs till 2009 was 39,536,838, higher by around 12 percent than the 2008 level, and around 53 percent higher than the 2006 level. As expected, the number of current borrowers was less than the cumulative borrowers. The number o